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Terms and Definitions

1.Cause and Manner of Death

Determining the precise reason a person stops living is a science, although not exactly an exact one.

The two terms that are used to make this determination are "cause and manner of death," and both are addressed individually in the Death Certificate.

Cause

This is a medical finding, made by a doctor, medical examiner, and/or coroner. There are two basic causes: proximate (underlying) and dependent (immediate.)

The dependent cause of death is the specific reason that the person stopped living. Example: under immediate or dependent cause of death it might read "Hypoxemic Necrosis of Brain (brain death) - due to Exsanguination - due to gunshot wound of abdomen," which would be the proximate cause. It may be followed by a secondary cause of death which is not related to the first, but was substantially contributory to the individual's demise. It can get complicated, and in medical malpractice cases the testimony of expert witnesses is usually necessary to prove the underlying cause of death.

In approximately five percent of deaths after autopsy, the cause is found to be uncertain or "unascertained." This is called an "obscure autopsy."

Manner

The manner of an individual's death is a legal classification, and here is where the science gets considerably less exact. The manner of death is based on a number of factors, including opinion, science, and other evidence connected to the deceased person.

There are six (6) categories of manner of death:

Natural: Death occurs due to natural causes
Accidental: unintentional or accidental
Suicidal: Death as a result of intention of deceased
Homicidal: Death caused by another
Undetermined: Inconclusive evidence to classify
Unclassified: Manner of death too complex to determine. (A rare occurrence)

Natural deaths comprise the majority of deaths. Common manners of death in this category are heart failure, disease, and death during sleep. Accidental deaths are also common, and subject to criminal investigation if law enforcement questions the natural classification. Suicide, the intentional taking of one's own life, is illegal, as is assisting another person committing suicide.

2. DACTYLSCOPY - Understanding fingerprints
Loops, Ridges and Whorls - Oh Henry!

On the skin of our fingers, palms, toes and soles are unique lines called friction ridges. An impression of this unique pattern can be transferred onto certain materials when touched. Residue from the skin is deposited on the receiving material. The science of analyzing and identifying prints is dactylscopy.

Prints can be patent (visible to the naked eye) or latent (invisible to the nake d eye and typically requiring processing to locate). Various techniques exist to "lift" the print from the surface so that it can be analzyed in the laboratory. Yes, the Super Glue method used in Beverly Hills Cop does work!

The Henry system is the most commonly identification method in the United States. The three major classification groups into which fingerprints are classified are: Loops, Ridges and Whorls.

3. PUBLIC RECORDS
Freedom of Information and Pennsylvania Right-to-Know

One of the most important resources for an investigator is the public document. A public document is a document that emanates from, and is held by a governmental agency. There are federal and state "Right to Know" laws that recognize and allow citizen access to some of these documents.

The Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) of 1966 (amended several times, most recently in 2007) pertains to federal documents emanating from agencies under the executive branch. It does not cover Congress or the courts. There are nine (9) "exemptions," or reasons that can a request can be denied. For example, a document could be withheld if it contains classified material compromising national security or foreign policy, or concerns internal government personnel rules and procedures. (See Act for all nine exemptions. (link to text of FOIA: www.usdoj.gov/oip/amended-foia-redlined.pdf)

Requests must be made to the appropriate federal agency. For example, if the documents pertain to a labor issue, do not write to the Department of Transportation. Address letters to the Freedom of Information Office of the agency in question. Write: "Freedom of Information Act Request" at the head of the letter and on the envelope.

Effective December 31, 2008, after the 2007 amendment, FOIA requires each agency to designate a FOIA "Public Liaison," to facilitate disputes with document requests.

The Privacy Act, ratified by Congress in 1974, gives an American citizen access to personal information collected about himself by the federal government. The Act guarantees: the right to see records about yourself; the right to amend that record if it is inaccurate, irrelevant, untimely, or incomplete; and the right to sue the government for violations of the statute, including allowing others to see personal records, unless specifically permitted by the Act. Like FOIA, The Privacy Act applies only to agencies emanating from the executive branch. The Privacy Act, too, has many exemptions, 10 in all. See The Privacy Act for all exemptions. (link to text of Privacy Act: www.usdoj.gov/oip/privstat.htm)

State Right to Know Laws make available certain government documents. There are different procedures for each state. In Pennsylvania, for example, requests must be made by letter, email, or form. There is no charge for the first 10 single sided copies of documents 11"x17" or smaller. A 0.15 charge per page is applied after 10 pages. There is also a one dollar per page redaction fee. (link to PA Right to Know Law: www.dos.state.pa.us/dos/lib/dos/righttoknow/rtk_notice_for_web.pdf)

5. Psycholinguistics
A relatively new and fascinating area of criminal analysis involves the examination of the psychology of language, called psycholinguistics. This discipline – involving linguistics, psychology, and cognitive science – examines different aspects of human speech: phonetic (sounds), syntax (patterns); semantics (meanings); morphology (word structures); pragmatics (context). Written and spoken language can reveal much about a person – geographic origin, education, race or ethnicity, religious background, gender, among other clues. For example, in a phone call threat about an impending terrorist attack, a psycholinguistic analysis of the threat can reveal the seriousness of the call and the potential for violence. Psycholinguistics can also help determine when a person is not telling the truth, or making false allegations. This analysis can be very effective in examining criminal statements, determining if a suspect or witness is prevaricating or obfuscating the truth. This is done by analyzing not only the words or phrases used, but words that are omitted or repeated. Psycholinguistics was used in the infamous case of Dr. Jeffrey MacDonald, a military medical doctor, who was convicted in 1979 of murdering his pregnant wife and children in 1970. Psycholinguistic analysis of MacDonald's statement after the crime was able to demonstrate that MacDonald's vague and selective memory in his statement indicated MacDonald was likely hiding information he knew about the murders. Psycholinguistics is another potentially effective tool in solving crimes, and exonerating innocent people wrongly charged with crimes.